What Drove Baptists to Write the 1689 Confession?

In a time of pressure and uncertainty, a group of Baptists quietly crafted a document that would define their faith for generations.

The Turbulent Origins of English Baptists

Seventeenth-century England was marked by deep divisions within Protestantism. The Church of England was officially Protestant but retained episcopal governance and certain traditional elements, prompting calls for further reform. Reform-minded Puritans sought to “purify” the national church of unbiblical ceremonies and governance, often favoring a presbyterian system.

More radical Separatists, or “Dissenters,” gave up on reforming the state church and formed independent congregations committed to simpler worship and congregational governance. Early Baptists emerged from this Separatist movement.

One branch, the General Baptists, arose in the early 1600s, led by John Smyth and Thomas Helwys. They held Arminian views of salvation. Later, in the 1630s, Particular Baptists—so named for their belief in particular redemption—began organizing separate congregations. The first Particular Baptist church was formed in 1633 in London under the leadership of John Spilsbury.

These Baptists shared certain Anabaptist distinctives, such as believer’s baptism and a strong separation of church and state, yet they were eager to distance themselves from the more radical Anabaptists who had been associated with rebellion and extreme sectarian ideas. In doctrine, the Particular Baptists aligned closely with Reformed (Calvinist) theology, differing from other Puritans mainly on issues of baptism and church polity.

Religious and political tensions erupted into the English Civil War (1642–1649). King Charles I’s efforts to enforce high-church Anglican worship and royal authority sparked conflict with the Puritan-led Parliament. Civil war followed as Parliament’s forces, many of whom were Puritans and other Dissenters, clashed with Royalists loyal to the king and the established church.

In 1643, during the war, Parliament convened the Westminster Assembly of theologians to reform English religion. The Assembly produced the Westminster Confession of Faith, completed in 1646, as a comprehensive Reformed confession meant to unite England, Scotland, and Ireland under a shared Presbyterian creed. Although its Presbyterian system of church government was never fully implemented in England due to ongoing political turmoil, the Westminster Confession’s robust Calvinist theology made it a defining statement of seventeenth-century Protestant orthodoxy.

During the war years, independent sects multiplied under the loosening grip of state church control. The Particular Baptists took advantage of this relative freedom to organize and define their identity. By 1644, there were at least seven Particular Baptist congregations in London, technically illegal but largely tolerated during the chaos. That year, they issued the First London Baptist Confession of Faith (1644). This confession served both as a public defense, aiming to correct misconceptions about Baptists, and as a teaching tool for their own members.

The Baptists were eager to demonstrate that they were neither seditious radicals nor heretics. The title page noted they were “commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptists,” and the confession affirmed both their doctrinal soundness and civic loyalty. For example, the 1644 articles explicitly affirmed the legitimacy of civil government, declaring the magistracy “an ordinance of God” and stating that it is lawful for Christians to serve as magistrates and take oaths. This was a direct rebuttal to Anabaptists who rejected such involvement.

The First London Confession was thoroughly Calvinistic, upholding the “five points” of Reformed doctrine, such as unconditional election and particular redemption. At the same time, it emphasized evangelism, asserting that the gospel is to be offered freely to all sinners. It also taught believers’ baptism by immersion, marking the first time immersion was officially prescribed in an English Baptist confession, and advocated for church independence.

By publishing this confession during the civil war, the Baptists succeeded in persuading many that they held orthodox Protestant beliefs and did not deserve the more extreme accusations often directed at them.

War, Toleration, and Growth under Cromwell

The civil war ended with Parliament’s victory and the unprecedented trial and execution of King Charles I in 1649. England then entered the Commonwealth and Protectorate period (1649–1660), effectively a Puritan-led republic under Oliver Cromwell. During the 1650s, religious toleration, at least for Protestants, reached an unprecedented level. Without a king or bishops to enforce religious uniformity, independent congregations, including Baptists, experienced a liberty not previously seen in England. Dissenting churches multiplied.

The Particular Baptists expanded beyond London, evangelizing and planting churches throughout England and Wales. Notably, pastors like John Miles and Thomas Collier led a nationwide church-planting effort during this time. It was a productive decade for the Baptists, though not without challenges. Internal debates and fringe movements arose alongside their growth. Fifth Monarchists, Quakers, and other sects also emerged, contributing to an atmosphere of lively, if sometimes chaotic, religious experimentation.

The Particular Baptists generally sought to distinguish themselves from these more extreme groups, holding firmly to Calvinist theology grounded in sola scriptura and committed to orderly church life.

Persecution and Unity in the Restoration Era

This season of liberty ended abruptly with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. King Charles II reclaimed the throne, and the Church of England, with its bishops and the Book of Common Prayer, was reinstated as the only legal church. What followed was over twenty-five years of harsh repression of Puritans and Baptists, now labeled Nonconformists for refusing to conform to the established church.

A series of laws known as the Clarendon Code (1661–1665) sought to crush dissenting worship. The Act of Uniformity (1662) forced around 2,000 Puritan ministers out of the Church of England. The Conventicle Act (1664) banned unauthorized religious gatherings, while the Five Mile Act (1665) barred ejected ministers from coming within five miles of their former parishes. Nonconformist preachers and members faced fines, imprisonment, and constant harassment. One notable example is the Baptist preacher John Bunyan, who was jailed for twelve years beginning in 1660 for preaching without a license, during which time he wrote The Pilgrim’s Progress. Under these pressures, many Baptist congregations met in secret to survive.

There were brief moments of relief. In 1672, Charles II issued a Declaration of Indulgence suspending penal laws against Nonconformists and Roman Catholics, allowing dissenters to legally gather and obtain preaching licenses. Baptists cautiously welcomed this development, and many pastors obtained licenses to reopen chapels. However, the Indulgence was short-lived. Parliament forced its withdrawal in 1673. That same year, the Test Act was passed, barring Nonconformists and Catholics from holding public office and reinforcing their status as second-class citizens.

Persecution during the Restoration era varied in intensity—it eased at times, then flared up again—but overall it united Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Baptists in a shared experience of suffering and resistance. Despite the hardships, the Baptist movement endured and even grew underground. By the late 1670s, Particular Baptists recognized the need for greater unity and doctrinal clarity. Years of persecution had shown them that disunity was a luxury they could not afford and that they shared much in common with fellow Calvinistic Baptists across the country.

Drafting the 1677 Baptist Confession

It was during this difficult period, in 1677, that Particular Baptist leaders quietly prepared a new confession of faith. Several factors prompted the initiative. First, the old 1644 confession had become difficult to find—“not now commonly to be had,” they noted—and many more churches had since embraced its principles. A fuller, updated statement was needed for a growing Baptist community.

Second, theological challenges had emerged within their ranks. A once-respected Particular Baptist minister, Thomas Collier, had begun promoting erroneous teachings. He denied orthodox Calvinist doctrines concerning Christ’s nature, original sin, and particular atonement. His drift toward Arminian and unorthodox views alarmed Baptist associations. In response, London elders like William Kiffin and Nehemiah Coxe traveled to confront Collier in 1677, and Coxe published a rebuttal titled Vindiciae Veritatis (“Vindication of the Truth”). Collier refused to recant, threatening to create a serious rift among the Baptists.

This controversy made it all the more urgent for Particular Baptists to codify their shared convictions and make clear their distance from any doctrinal error. In the introduction to the new confession, they explained that persecution and controversy had only strengthened their resolve. It was “necessary by us to join together in giving a testimony to the world” of their unity and “firm adhering” to gospel truth.

From Secret Circulation to Public Adoption

In 1685, Charles II’s brother, James II, ascended the throne. James was openly Catholic, which stirred widespread fears of a return to Catholic dominance. Ironically, he attempted to grant broad toleration to Dissenters, as well as Catholics, through Declarations of Indulgence in 1687 and 1688. Many Nonconformists welcomed this temporary relief, though some remained wary of the king’s intentions.

The crisis reached its peak in 1688 when James II’s policies and the birth of a Catholic heir triggered the Glorious Revolution. James was deposed and fled the country, and the Protestant monarchs William III and Mary II were invited to take the throne. This power shift marked the beginning of a new era in religious policy.

In 1689, the English Parliament passed the Act of Toleration, a landmark law that granted limited but significant freedom of worship to Protestant Dissenters. This Act allowed Trinitarian Protestant groups such as Baptists, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians to worship legally in licensed meeting houses, provided their ministers took oaths of allegiance and rejected Catholic doctrines. For the first time, religious plurality was formally recognized alongside the established Anglican Church. Although Dissenters were still denied full civil equality, the Toleration Act ended the era of severe persecution.

The Particular Baptists acted quickly to embrace this new freedom. In September 1689, representatives from more than 100 Particular Baptist churches across England and Wales, many of which had previously met in secret, gathered openly in London for a General Assembly. Between September 3rd and 12th, the assembly discussed and formally adopted the confession that had been privately circulated since 1677.

Because of its public adoption in that year, and the inclusion of a new preface dated 1689, the document came to be known as the “1689 Baptist Confession of Faith,” even though it had been written twelve years earlier. The published confession included a preface dated 1689 and was signed by dozens of pastors and messengers on behalf of their churches.

At last, the Particular Baptists could openly declare their beliefs without fear of imprisonment. They hoped this confession would not only unify their own movement but also show the broader public, and especially the newly tolerant authorities, that Baptists were orthodox Protestants and loyal citizens, not rebellious agitators.

A Confession Aligned with Reformed Orthodoxy

The 1689 Baptist Confession did not emerge in isolation but was deeply shaped by earlier Protestant confessions. The authors explicitly modeled it on the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) and the Savoy Declaration (1658). The Westminster Confession, written by Presbyterian theologians during the civil war, set a high standard for Reformed theology in confessional form. Later, during Cromwell’s rule, the Congregationalist (Independent) churches, led by figures such as John Owen and Thomas Goodwin, issued the Savoy Declaration. This document was essentially the Westminster Confession revised to reflect congregational church governance. It preserved Westminster’s doctrinal content with only minor edits and added a section on church government better suited to autonomous congregations.

By the late seventeenth century, both of these confessions were widely respected as authoritative statements of Protestant orthodoxy in England. In drafting their own confession, the Particular Baptists saw an opportunity to align themselves with the broader Reformed tradition. In a spirit of unity, they chose not to alter texts where they stood in agreement with their Presbyterian and Congregationalist counterparts.

The introduction to the 1677 Baptist Confession explains that the framers studied the Westminster and Savoy confessions and resolved “to follow their example” by using “the very same words” in areas of shared doctrine. Their goal was to “manifest our consent with them both, in all the fundamental articles of the Christian religion,” and to show that they had “no itch to clog religion with new words,” but were content to adopt that “form of sound words” already in use—so long as it conformed to Scripture. In doing so, the Baptists aimed to highlight their theological common ground. By echoing the language of Westminster and Savoy, they sought to “abundantly manifest” their unity with the broader Puritan theological consensus.

This was a bold ecumenical move. It signaled that Particular Baptists affirmed the same essential doctrines, such as the Trinity, the authority of Scripture, and salvation by grace through faith, as did orthodox Presbyterians and Independents.

Even so, Baptist distinctives required thoughtful revision of those earlier paedobaptist documents. The Westminster Confession reflected a Presbyterian view, and the Savoy Declaration was from a Congregationalist paedobaptist perspective. The Second London Confession of 1677/1689 revised the Savoy Declaration, which itself was a revision of Westminster, to reflect Baptist convictions. Most of the changes centered on ecclesiology and sacramental theology.

For example, the Baptists removed Westminster’s chapters on “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” and replaced them with their own teachings, which affirmed believers’ baptism (credobaptism) and emphasized the symbolic nature of the ordinances. All language regarding infant baptism as a covenant sign was omitted. An appendix was also added to defend baptism for believers only.

In matters of church government, the Baptists, like the Savoy Independents, rejected the hierarchical structure of Presbyterianism. The Second London Confession taught a congregational polity where each local church, under Christ as its head (cf. Eph. 5:23), governs its own affairs through its appointed officers (elders and deacons). Voluntary associations of churches may exist, but they possess no juridical authority over member congregations. Accordingly, the Baptists omitted the Westminster chapter that permitted synods and councils to enforce unity.

They also revised the chapter on the civil magistrate. While Westminster, rooted in a Christendom framework, allowed magistrates to suppress heresy and convene synods, the Baptists, having suffered under such authority, advocated for a clearer separation of church and state. The 1689 Confession teaches that civil authorities are ordained by God and should be obeyed in lawful civil matters, but the governance of the church—its doctrine, worship, and discipline—belongs solely under Christ’s lordship, not the magistrate’s.

In practice, the Baptists championed religious liberty and the freedom of conscience. “God alone is Lord of the conscience,” they declared, echoing Jesus’ words: “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s” (Mt 22:21).

In this way, the Second London Confession became a Baptist adaptation of the Westminster and Savoy confessions, affirming the same foundational theology while making key adjustments in covenant theology, baptism, church order, and the relationship between church and state.

The drafting of the Baptist confession took place under cover of anonymity in 1677 when open Baptist synods remained illegal. The earliest known record appears in the minutes of the Petty France Baptist Church in London, dated August 26, 1677, which states that “a Confession of faith, with the Appendix thereto, having been read and considered by the brethren, should be published.” This congregation, pastored by Nehemiah Coxe and William Collins, was one of the original seven London churches from 1644 and appears to have played a leading role in initiating the new confession.

Historians generally agree that Coxe and Collins were the primary editors or authors of the 1677 confession. Both men were respected Particular Baptist theologians, ordained together as co-pastors in 1675, and known for their theological skill and writing ability. It is likely that they, with input from other ministers, adapted and edited the Westminster and Savoy texts to craft a confession that reflected Baptist convictions. Notably, Nehemiah Coxe was the son of Benjamin Cox, a signer of the 1644 confession, highlighting a continuity of leadership across generations.

The 1677 confession was published anonymously under the title A Confession of Faith put forth by the Elders and Brethren of many Congregations of Christians, baptized upon profession of their faith, in London and the country. No authors or printers were named, a precaution taken due to the persecution that still threatened open Baptist expression.

In its preface, the confession acknowledged its dependence on the Westminster Assembly’s confession (“the Assembly”) and “those of the Congregational Way” (Savoy). It also explained why a second Baptist confession was being issued even though the 1644 confession was still in existence. One reason was the scarcity of the older confession. Another was that many more churches had since embraced those truths, making a new unified testimony desirable. The preface further stated that the updated “method and manner of expressing” their faith was meant to make their agreement with other orthodox confessions more evident, “although the substance of the matter is the same.” In essence, the second confession did not contradict the first but expanded and clarified it in line with the more mature theological vocabulary of the Westminster era.

Under James II’s brief period of toleration (1687–88), some Baptists began meeting more openly, and additional printings of the confession appeared in 1688 and 1689. The pivotal moment came with the Act of Toleration in 1689. Immediately afterward, a General Assembly of Particular Baptists convened in London in September of that year. This gathering, representing more than 100 churches, publicly ratified the confession that had been circulating quietly since 1677.

The assembly issued a pastoral letter recommending the confession for the “perusal” of their congregations and encouraging church members to obtain personal copies. The 1689 edition included a preface dated that year and was signed by 37 messengers, signifying its adoption “in the name of and on behalf of the whole assembly” of churches.

Among the notable signers were Hanserd Knollys of London, William Kiffin of London, Benjamin Keach of Southwark, William Collins of London, and representatives from as far as Bristol, Devon, and Wales. This public endorsement marked a watershed moment for the Baptist movement. After decades of persecution and marginalization, the Particular Baptists gained legal recognition and presented a unified doctrinal front.

Interestingly, several men who had signed the 1644 or 1646 confession, such as Kiffin and Knollys, also signed the 1689 document, illustrating a strong thread of continuity in Baptist theology despite the many challenges of the intervening decades. Churches that had endured since the 1640s stood alongside newer congregations in affirming a shared statement of faith.

Doctrinal Structure and Theological Content

The 1689 Baptist Confession is a systematic and comprehensive creed, structured into 32 chapters that cover the full range of Protestant doctrine. It begins, appropriately, with the foundation of all theological knowledge—that is, Scripture. Chapter 1, “Of the Holy Scriptures,” affirms the Bible as the only sufficient and infallible rule of all saving knowledge and faith.

From there, the confession follows a logical theological order, closely resembling the structure of the Westminster Confession. Chapters 2–5 present the doctrine of God and creation, addressing the nature of God, the Trinity, God’s eternal decree, and providence. Chapters 6–8 discuss the fall of man and Christ the Mediator, highlighting humanity’s fallen state and the necessity of Christ’s atoning work. The confession is thoroughly Christ-centered and Calvinistic, teaching salvation by grace alone through Christ’s mediatory sacrifice on behalf of the elect.

Chapters 9–20 develop various aspects of salvation (ordo salutis), including human free will (bound in sin), effectual calling, justification by faith, adoption, sanctification, the gift of saving faith, repentance, good works (as the fruit of faith, not its ground), the perseverance of the saints, and the assurance believers may attain. The confession clearly affirms the Reformation principle that salvation is entirely of God—“by grace you have been saved through faith… not a result of works” (Eph 2:8–9)—while also emphasizing the believer’s responsibility to walk in good works.

A full chapter (Chapter 7) is devoted to God’s covenant, reflecting the Baptists’ covenant theology. It outlines the covenant of works made with Adam and the covenant of grace by which the elect are saved through Christ. While aligning broadly with Reformed covenantal thought, the Baptists articulated a distinctive approach, applying the covenant of grace more narrowly to the new covenant.

The confession also addresses the law of God (Chapter 19) and religious worship, including the Christian Sabbath (covered in Chapter 22). The detailed treatment of the moral law and Lord’s Day observance signals the Baptists’ alignment with Puritan Sabbatarianism and moral theology, distancing themselves from any antinomian tendencies. These topics receive more emphasis in the 1689 confession than in the 1644 version, likely in response to criticism and to affirm the Baptists’ moral seriousness and doctrinal continuity with broader Puritanism.

Chapters 26–30 deal with the doctrine of the church and the ordinances. The confession teaches that the universal church consists of all the elect in Christ, but it is expressed in local congregations of visible saints under Christ’s lordship (Chapter 26, “Of the Church”). It affirms only two church offices, elders (or pastors) and deacons, rejecting any hierarchical offices above the local church. The confession also promotes the communion of saints (Chapter 27), emphasizing mutual fellowship and responsibilities within the body of Christ.

Chapters 28–30 address the ordinances of baptism and the Lord’s Supper. Baptism is defined as immersion in water of a professing believer, signifying union with Christ in his death and resurrection. It is not for infants but only for those who make a credible profession of faith. The Lord’s Supper is described as a memorial ordinance, not a sacrifice, to be observed by baptized believers. While the core theology was firm, the confession allowed some flexibility regarding practices such as the laying on of hands and the singing of hymns in worship.

The final chapters (31–32) cover last things: the intermediate state after death, the resurrection, and the last judgment. The confession deliberately avoids taking a specific stance on millennial views, allowing for diversity among amillennial, postmillennial, and premillennial Baptists. It affirms the future return of Christ to judge the world, the eternal punishment of the wicked, and the everlasting reward of the righteous.

The confession as a whole is anchored in the authority of Scripture and in the classic doctrines of the Protestant Reformation. It upholds sola scriptura, sola fide, and sola gratia. It affirms the Trinity, the full deity and humanity of Christ, and the work of the Holy Spirit in salvation, aligning with the ancient ecumenical creeds. At the same time, it firmly rejects the errors of Roman Catholicism, including the papacy, purgatory, and transubstantiation, and distances itself from radical enthusiasm or mystical subjectivism by grounding spiritual life in the Word and the ordinary means of grace.

In its structure and tone, the 1689 Confession reflects a shift toward the comprehensive confessional style exemplified by the Westminster Confession. Its 32 chapters with 122 paragraphs, compared to the 52 articles of the 1644 confession, signal a more mature theological development and a desire to engage a fuller range of doctrinal concerns. Much of its language closely mirrors Westminster, and large portions are word-for-word identical. This was a deliberate strategy to show that, aside from matters of baptism and church polity, Baptists stood shoulder to shoulder with their Reformed Protestant peers.

Key Leaders Behind the Confession

The making and promulgation of the 1689 Baptist Confession involved a number of significant Baptist leaders whose efforts guided the Particular Baptist movement through a season of trial into one of unity and consolidation.

William Kiffin (1616–1701) was a wealthy London merchant and pastor who emerged as one of the founding leaders of the Particular Baptists. He was among the original seven signatories of the 1644 Confession and later signed the 1689 Confession as well. Kiffin endured persecution under Charles II and played a vital role in Baptist organization, often mediating with the authorities on behalf of his fellow Dissenters.

Hanserd Knollys (c.1599–1691) was an older Puritan who became a Baptist preacher and pastored a London congregation. Like Kiffin, he signed both the 1646 and 1689 Baptist confessions. Knollys’ long life and ministry linked the earliest Baptist efforts of the mid-1600s to the post-Toleration era, offering a symbol of theological continuity and endurance.

Nehemiah Coxe (d. 1689) served as co-pastor of the Petty France church in London and is widely recognized as a co-author or editor of the 1677 confession. An educated minister and son of 1644 signer Benjamin Cox, Nehemiah was held in high regard by his peers and was often asked to write on theological matters. Though instrumental in drafting the confession, he died in May 1689, just months before its public adoption. As a result, his name does not appear among the 1689 signatories, but his role remains central and is often remembered alongside that of his pastoral colleague.

William Collins (d. 1702) was Coxe’s co-pastor at Petty France and another principal compiler of the confession. Educated and reportedly holding a B.D. degree, Collins contributed significantly to Baptist theological literature. In addition to helping draft the confession, he later co-authored the Baptist Catechism in 1693—a teaching tool modeled on the Westminster Shorter Catechism. He lived to see the confession gain wide acceptance and was posthumously acknowledged in 1720 as having publication rights to it.

Benjamin Keach (1640–1704), pastor of a church in Southwark, was a well-known Baptist preacher and writer. He faced persecution in the 1660s, including imprisonment, for publishing a children’s catechism. Though not directly involved in writing the 1677 confession, Keach strongly supported its promotion and was later involved in publishing the Baptist Catechism. As a signatory of the 1689 Confession, his endorsement carried considerable influence. Keach also championed congregational hymn-singing, a practice that became more widely accepted among Baptists partly due to his advocacy.

Other signatories, including William and Hercules Collins, Robert Steed, Andrew Gifford, and Thomas Vaux, represented congregations across London and the provinces. Gifford, for example, was a key figure in the Baptist community in Bristol, while Vaux and his fellow elder Whinnell signed on behalf of Somerset congregations. Their collective endorsement demonstrated the confession’s broad geographic support and the unity it achieved across regions.

Together, these leaders formed a network of pastors and elders who guided the Particular Baptist community through persecution and theological controversy into a new era of confessional clarity. They combined theological conviction with practical wisdom, contending for doctrinal purity—as seen in Coxe’s confrontation with Thomas Collier—while also fostering peace and cooperation with other orthodox Christians.

Their work in producing, promoting, and preserving the 1689 Confession gave future generations of Baptists a firm doctrinal foundation. The confession was soon adopted by Baptists in North America, published in Boston in 1689, and officially adopted by the Philadelphia Baptist Association in 1742, and it remains a widely respected statement of faith among Reformed Baptist churches worldwide today.

When the door of legal toleration opened in 1689, the Particular Baptists stepped into the light with this confession in hand, “giving a testimony to the world” of their faith. More than three centuries later, the 1689 Confession endures as a witness to their theological clarity, steadfastness under trial, and commitment to “the faith that was once for all delivered to the saints” (Jude 3).